NINETEENTH-CENTURY POLITICS IN THE UNITED STATES
The development of the modern presidency in the United States began with Andrew Jackson who swept to power in 1829 at the head of the Democratic Party and served until 1837. During his administration, he immeasurably enlarged the power of the presidency. "The President is the direct representative of the American people," he lectured the Senate when it opposed him. "He was elected by the people, and is responsible to them." With this declaration, Jackson redefined the character of the presidential office and its relationship to the people.
During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually come together to form the Whig party. Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about by the market, banks, and commerce. The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflict between "the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated the banking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue by encouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. The Democrats wanted the rewards of the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. They wanted the wealth that the market offered without the competitive, changing society; the complex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that came with it.
Whigs, on the other hand, were more comfortable with the market. For them, commerce and economic development were agents of civilization. Nor did the Whigs envision any conflict in society between farmers and workers on the one hand and businesspeople and bankers on the other. Economic growth would benefit everyone by raising national income and expanding opportunity. The government's responsibility was to provide a well-regulated economy that guaranteed opportunity for citizens of ability.
Whigs and Democrats differed not only in their attitudes toward the market but also about how active the central government should be in people's lives. Despite Andrew Jackson's inclination to be a strong President, Democrats as a rule believed in limited government. Government's role in the economy was to promote competition by destroying monopolies' and special privileges. In keeping with this philosophy of limited government, Democrats also rejected the idea that moral beliefs were the proper sphere of government action. Religion and politics, they believed, should be kept clearly separate, and they generally opposed humanitarian legislation.
The Whigs, in contrast, viewed government power positively. They believed that it should be used to protect individual rights and public liberty, and that it had a special role where individual effort was ineffective. By regulating the economy and competition, the government could ensure equal opportunity. Indeed, for Whigs the concept of government promoting the general welfare went beyond the economy. In particular, Whigs in the northern sections of the United States also believed that government power should be used to foster the moral welfare of the country. They were much more likely to favor social-reform legislation and aid to education.
In some ways the social makeup of the two parties was similar. To be competitive in winning votes, Whigs and Democrats both had to have significant support among farmers, the largest group in society, and workers. Neither party could win an election by appealing exclusively to the rich or the poor. The Whigs, however, enjoyed disproportionate strength among the business and commercial classes. Whigs appealed to planters who needed credit to finance their cotton and rice trade in the world market, to farmers who were eager to sell their surpluses, and to workers who wished to improve themselves. Democrats attracted farmers isolated from the market or uncomfortable with it, workers alienated from the emerging industrial system, and rising entrepreneurs who wanted to break monopolies and open the economy to newcomers like themselves. The Whigs were strongest in the towns, cities, and those rural areas that were fully integrated into the market economy, whereas Democrats dominated areas of semisubsistence farming that were more isolated and languishing economically.
Paragraph 1: The development of the modern presidency in the United States began with Andrew Jackson who swept to power in 1829 at the head of the Democratic Party and served until 1837. During his administration, he immeasurably enlarged the power of the presidency. "The President is the direct representative of the American people," he lectured the Senate when it opposed him. "He was elected by the people, and is responsible to them." With this declaration, Jackson redefined the character of the presidential office and its relationship to the people.
1. The word immeasurably in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Frequently
○Greatly
○Rapidly
○Reportedly
2. According to paragraph 1, the presidency of Andrew Jackson was especially significant for which of the following reasons?
○The President granted a portion of his power to the Senate.
○The President began to address the Senate on a regular basis.
○It was the beginning of the modern presidency in the United States.
○It was the first time that the Senate had been known to oppose the President.
Paragraph 2: During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually come together to form the Whig party. Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about by the market, banks, and commerce. The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflict between "the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated the banking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue by encouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. The Democrats wanted the rewards of the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. They wanted the wealth that the market offered without the competitive, changing society; the complex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that came with it.
3. The author mentions bankers and investors in the passage as an example of which of the following?
○The Democratic Party's main source of support
○The people that Democrats claimed were unfairly becoming rich
○The people most interested in a return to a simple agrarian republic
○One of the groups in favor of Andrew Jackson's presidency
Paragraph 3: Whigs, on the other hand, were more comfortable with the market. For them, commerce and economic development were agents of civilization. Nor did the Whigs envision any conflict in society between farmers and workers on the one hand and businesspeople and bankers on the other. Economic growth would benefit everyone by raising national income and expanding opportunity. The government's responsibility was to provide a well-regulated economy that guaranteed opportunity for citizens of ability.
4. According to paragraph 3, Whigs believed that commerce and economic development would have which of the following effects on society?
○They would promote the advancement of society as a whole.
○They would cause disagreements between Whigs and Democrats
○They would supply new positions for Whig Party members.
○They would prevent conflict between farmers and workers.
5. According to paragraph 3, which of the following describes the Whig Party's view of the role of government?
○To regulate the continuing conflict between farmers and businesspeople
○To restrict the changes brought about by the market
○To maintain an economy that allowed all capable citizens to benefit
○To reduce the emphasis on economic development
Paragraph 4: Whigs and Democrats differed not only in their attitudes toward the market but also about how active the central government should be in people's lives. Despite Andrew Jackson's inclination to be a strong President, Democrats as a rule believed in limited government. Government's role in the economy was to promote competition by destroying monopolies' and special privileges. In keeping with this philosophy of limited government, Democrats also rejected the idea that moral beliefs were the proper sphere of government action. Religion and politics, they believed, should be kept clearly separate, and they generally opposed humanitarian legislation.
6. The word inclination in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Argument
○Tendency
○Example
○Warning
7. According to paragraph 4, a Democrat would be most likely to support government action in which of the following areas?
○Creating a state religion
○Supporting humanitarian legislation
○Destroying monopolies
○Recommending particular moral beliefs
Paragraph 5: The Whigs, in contrast, viewed government power positively. They believed that it should be used to protect individual rights and public liberty, and that it had a special role where individual effort was ineffective. By regulating the economy and competition, the government could ensure equal opportunity. Indeed, for Whigs the concept of government promoting the general welfare went beyond the economy. In particular, Whigs in the northern sections of the United States also believed that government power should be used to foster the moral welfare of the country. They were much more likely to favor social-reform legislation and aid to education.
8. The word concept in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Power
○Reality
○Difficulty
○Idea
9. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about variations in political beliefs within the Whig Party?
○They were focused on issues of public liberty.
○They caused some members to leave the Whig party.
○They were unimportant to most Whigs.
○They reflected regional interests.
Paragraph 6: In some ways the social makeup of the two parties was similar. To be competitive in winning votes, Whigs and Democrats both had to have significant support among farmers, the largest group in society, and workers. Neither party could win an election by appealing exclusively to the rich or the poor. The Whigs, however, enjoyed disproportionate strength among the business and commercial classes. Whigs appealed to planters who needed credit to finance their cotton and rice trade in the world market, to farmers who were eager to sell their surpluses, and to workers who wished to improve themselves. Democrats attracted farmers isolated from the market or uncomfortable with it, workers alienated from the emerging industrial system, and rising entrepreneurs who wanted to break monopolies and open the economy to newcomers like themselves. The Whigs were strongest in the towns, cities, and those rural areas that were fully integrated into the market economy, whereas Democrats dominated areas of semisubsistence farming that were more isolated and languishing economically.
10. According to paragraph 6, the Democrats were supported by all of the following groups EXCEPT
○workers unhappy with the new industrial system
○planters involved in international trade
○rising entrepreneurs
○individuals seeking to open the economy to newcomers
11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○Whigs were able to attract support only in the wealthiest parts of the economy because Democrats dominated in other areas.
○Whig and Democratic areas of influence were naturally split between urban and rural areas, respectively.
○The semisubsistence farming areas dominated by Democrats became increasingly isolated by the Whigs' control of the market economy.
○The Democrats' power was greatest in poorer areas while the Whigs were strongest in those areas where the market was already fully operating.
Paragraph 2: During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually come together to form the Whig party. Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about by the market, banks, and commerce. The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflict between "the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated the banking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue by encouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. The Democrats wanted the rewards of the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. They wanted the wealth that the market offered without the competitive, changing society; the complex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that came with it.
12. Look at the four squares II that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.
This new party argued against the policies of Jackson and his party in a number of important areas, beginning with the economy.
Where would the sentence best fit?
13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
The political system of the United States in the mid-nineteenth century was strongly influenced by the social and economic circumstances of the time.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
1. The Democratic and Whig Parties developed in response to the needs of competing economic and political constituencies.
2. During Andrew Jackson's two terms as President, he served as leader of both the Democratic and Whig Parties.
3. The Democratic Party primarily represented the interests of the market, banks, and commerce.
4. In contrast to the Democrats, the Whigs favored government aid for education.
5. A fundamental difference between Whigs and Democrats involved the importance of the market in society.
6. The role of government in the lives of the people was an important political distinction between the two parties.
參考答案：
1. ○2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is immeasurably. It is highlighted in the passage. Iiznzeasurab2y means "in a manner too big to be measured." So if Jackson enlarged the president's powers so much that the results can't be measured, he enlarged them "greatly."
2. ○3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 1. The correct answer is choice 3 because the first sentence of the paragraph explicitly states that this was when the development of the modern presidency began. The remainder of the paragraph is devoted to explaining the significant changes in government that this development involved. The result, as stated in sentence 5, was that the nature of the presidency itself was redefined. Choice 1 is contradicted by the paragraph; Jackson didn't give presidential power away, he increased it. Choice 2 is not mentioned in the paragraph: it says Jackson addressed the Senate, but not that this was the beginning of regular addresses. Choice 4, which says that this was the first time the Senate opposed the President, is not stated in the passage.
3. ○2
This is a Rhetorical Purpose question. It is asking you why the author mentions "bankers and investors" in the passage. The phrase being tested is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2. The author is using bankers and investors as examples of people that the Democrats claimed were "manipulating" the banking system for their own profit. That means that they were unfairly becoming rich. Choices 1, 3, and 4 are all incorrect because, based upon the passage, they seem unlikely to be true. Therefore, the author would not use them as examples.
4. ○1
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 3. Choice 1 is the correct answer. The paragraph says that Whigs believed commerce and economic development "would benefit everyone." That means essentially the same thing as choice 1, which says that Whigs believed economic growth would "promote the advancement of society as a whole." "Society as a whole" is another way of saying "everyone." Choices 2 and 3 are not mentioned in the paragraph. Choice 4, about conflict between groups, is mentioned but in a different context, so it is not a belief held by Whigs.
5. ○3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 3. The correct answer is choice 3: the Whigs viewed government as responsible for maintaining an economy that allowed all capable citizens to benefit. This is a restatement of paragraph 3, sentence 5. The paragraph states that Whigs did not envision continuing conflict between farmers and business people, so choice 1 is wrong. Whigs favored changes brought about b) the market, so choice 2 is wrong. Whigs were in favor of increased emphasis on economic development, so choice 4 is incorrect.
6. ○2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is inclination. It is highlighted in the passage. The fact that Jackson had an inclination to be a strong President means that he preferred being strong to having limited powers. In other words, his "tendency" was to favor a strong presidency, so choice 2 is the correct answer.
7. ○3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 4. The correct answer is choice 3, which is explicitly stated in sentence 3 of the paragraph. Sentences 4 and 5 explicitly refute the other choices.
8. ○4
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is concept. It is highlighted in the passage. The passage says that "for Whigs the concept of government was . . ." In other words, "the way Whigs thought about government was." That process of thinking represents ideas, so choice 4 is the correct answer here.
9. ○4
This is an Inference question asking for an inference that can be supported by paragraph 5. The correct answer is choice 4: variations in Whigs' political beliefs reflected regional differences. This is supported by sentence 5 of the paragraph which says that certain beliefs "particularly" reflected the views of northern Whigs. That suggests that Whigs in other regions of the country had beliefs that varied from this view and implies that such differences were regional. The other three choices are not mentioned in the passage in connection with "variations" in Whig beliefs, so there is no basis for inferring any of them.
10. ○ 2
This is a Negative Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 6. Choice 2 is the correct answer. Sentence 5 says that it was Whigs, not Democrats, who had the support of planters involved in international trade. The next sentence, sentence 6, says that in contrast, Democrats had the support of the groups mentioned in choices 1, 3, and 4 ("workers," "entrepreneurs," and certain other "individuals"). Therefore, all of the groups described in the answer choices, EXCEPT the planters of choice 2, did support the Democrats.
11. ○ 4
This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in the passage is highlighted:
The Whigs were strongest in the towns, cities, and those rural areas that were fully integrated into the market economy, whereas Democrats dominated areas of semisubsistence farming that were more isolated and languishing economically. The correct answer is choice 4. Choice "contains all of the essential information in the tested sentence but the order in which it is presented is reversed. The highlighted sentence describes areas of Whig strength first, and then the areas where Democrats were strong. The correct answer, choice 4, describes Democrat strongholds first, and then Whig areas. No meaning has been changed, and no information has been left out. Choice 1 is incorrect because it states that Whigs were able to attract support only in the wealthiest areas. The highlighted sentence does not say that; it says their support came from places integrated into the market, which can include areas of all economic levels.
Choice 2 is incorrect because it says that the two parties were split between rural and urban areas. However, the highlighted sentence says that Whigs were strong in rural areas that were integrated into the market economy. In other words, the split between the parties was based on the degree to which an area was integrated into the market, not whether it was urban or rural. Choice 3 is incorrect because the highlighted sentence makes no mention of how (or if) the Whigs' control of the market economy affected the areas dominated by the Democrats.
12. ○ 1
This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 2 that represent the possible answer choices here.
During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually come together to form the Whig party. Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about by the market, banks, and commerce. The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflict between "the people “farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated the banking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue by encouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. The Democrats wanted the rewards of the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. They wanted the wealth that the market offered without the competitive, changing society; the complex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that came with it.
The sentence provided, "This new party argued against the policies of Jackson and his party in a number of important areas, beginning with the economy," is best inserted at square 1. Square 1 is correct because the phrase "This new party" refers directly and only to the Whigs, who are first mentioned (as a recently formed party) in sentence 1 of this paragraph. Square 2 is incorrect because the sentence before is not limited to the new Whig party. It discusses both Whigs and Democrats. Squares 3 and 4 are both incorrect because the sentences preceding them refer to the Democrats (the old party), not the Whigs.
13. ○1 5 6
This is a Prose Summary question. It is completed correctly below. The correct choices are 1, 5, and 6. Choices 2, 3, and 4 are therefore incorrect.
參考譯文
美國現代總統制度的發展是從安德魯杰克遜開始的。這位民主黨領導人在1829年掌權，直至1837年卸任。在他任職期間，總統的權力被無限量地擴大了。參議院反對他時，他曾說：“總統是美國人民的直接代表，美國總統由公民選舉產生，對公民負責。”杰克遜用這番話重新定義了內閣的角色，及其與民眾的關系。
在杰克遜的第二任任職期間，他的反對者們逐漸聯合起來形成了輝格黨。輝格黨和民主黨在市場、銀行、商業引發的變化上持有不同的態度。民主黨傾向于把社會視作平民（農民、種植園主、工人）和一小撮貪婪的貴族間持續的斗爭。他們宣稱，那些銀行家和投資者們都是“鈔票貴族”，他們在自己利益的驅使下操縱著銀行系統，并且以鼓勵投機和迅速賺取不義之財的行為敗壞國民道德。民主黨人既想從市場經濟中獲得好處，又不想犧牲單一土地所有權的共和體制。他們想要市場經濟帶來的財富而不想要競爭，不想改變社會；不想要復雜的交易；不要大城市的主宰和隨著市場經濟而來的獨立性的喪失。
另一方面，輝格黨對市場更為適應。對于他們來說，商業和經濟的發展是文明化的動力。然而，輝格黨人并沒有預見農民、工人和商人、銀行家之間的沖突。他們認為，經濟發展會通過增加國民收入和就業機會使每個人受益。政府的職責就是提供一個井然有序運作良好的經濟環境，保證給每一個有能力的公民機會。
輝格黨和民主黨的分歧不僅表現在對市場的態度上，而且表現在中央政府究竟該在人民生活中起到多少作用上。拋開安德魯杰克遜想做一個強勢總統不談，民主黨本身就主張限制政府的做法。政府在經濟中的角色就是通過摧毀壟斷和特權來鼓勵競爭。為了遵循限制政府的做法，民主黨人同樣否定了道德準則屬政府行為的范疇。民主黨人確信，宗教和政治應劃清界限，而大體上，他們也反對人道主義立法。
??相反地，政府權力在輝格黨人眼中是積極的。他們認為，應該用政府權力保護個人權力和公眾自由，在個人努力無效時扮演特殊角色。通過規劃經濟和競爭，政府可以保證機會平等。確實，輝格黨的政府促進公眾福利超過了促進經濟。特別是，美國北部的輝格黨還認為政府力量應該用來推廣國家的道德福利。他們更加偏好社會改革法案和補助教育。
在某些方面兩黨對社會的完善是相似的。為了在投票中更具競爭力，輝格黨和民主黨都要在社會最大群體即農民和工人當中獲得大力支持。任何一個黨派若只討好窮人或富人都不可能贏得選舉。然而，輝格黨偏好把精力花費在商業階層上。輝格黨博得了需要信用來貸款以在世界貿易中出售棉花和米的種地的人、渴望賣出余糧的農民和希望改變現狀的工人的喜好。民主黨則吸引了隔離于市場外或不習慣市場的農民、工業系統外的工人和想打破壟斷開發新市場的新興小企業家的歡心。輝格黨在城鎮市區還有完全融入市場經濟的農村區域很強勢，而民主黨主宰了與市場隔絕，經濟稍遜的半農耕地區。
